Gene and Cell Doping: The New Frontier - Beyond Myth or Reality.
Authors: Neuberger EWI, Simon P
Abstract
The advent of gene transfer technologies in clinical studies aroused concerns that these technologies will be misused for performance-enhancing purposes in sports. However, during the last 2 decades, the field of gene therapy has taken a long and winding road with just a few gene therapeutic drugs demonstrating clinical benefits in humans. The current state of gene therapy is that viral vector-mediated gene transfer shows the now long-awaited initial success for safe, and in some cases efficient, gene transfer in clinical trials. Additionally, the use of small inter...
Source: Medicine and Sport Science - June 6, 2017 Category: Sports Medicine Tags: Med Sport Sci Source Type: research
The Athlete Biological Passport: How to Personalize Anti-Doping Testing across an Athlete's Career?
Authors: Robinson N, Sottas PE, Schumacher YO
Abstract
For decades, drug testing has been the main instrument at the disposal of anti-doping authorities. The availability in the 1980s of substances identical to those produced by the human body, including the "big 3" (erythropoietin, testosterone, and growth hormone), necessitated a new paradigm in anti-doping. The athlete biological passport (ABP) is a new paradigm, complementary to traditional drug testing, based on the personalized monitoring of doping biomarkers. Athletes who abuse doping substances do so to trigger physiological changes that provide pe...
Source: Medicine and Sport Science - June 6, 2017 Category: Sports Medicine Tags: Med Sport Sci Source Type: research
Challenges in Modern Anti-Doping Analytical Science.
Authors: Ayotte C, Miller J, Thevis M
Abstract
The challenges facing modern anti-doping analytical science are increasingly complex given the expansion of target drug substances, as the pharmaceutical industry introduces more novel therapeutic compounds and the internet offers designer drugs to improve performance. The technical challenges are manifold, including, for example, the need for advanced instrumentation for greater speed of analyses and increased sensitivity, specific techniques capable of distinguishing between endogenous and exogenous metabolites, or biological assays for the detection of pept...
Source: Medicine and Sport Science - June 2, 2017 Category: Sports Medicine Tags: Med Sport Sci Source Type: research
Education in Anti-Doping: The Art of Self-Imposed Constraints.
Authors: Loland S
Abstract
The pillars of anti-doping are detection, deterrence, and prevention. Detection takes the form of testing for banned substances. Deterrence builds on testing and gathering evidence. Athletes who test positive are exposed to penalties. The main tool of prevention is education. Education takes many forms and can be implemented in many ways. This chapter addresses the nature and challenges of current anti-doping education. Firstly, general goals of education and their connection to sport are discussed. Secondly, three normative interpretations of sport are presented, and their impli...
Source: Medicine and Sport Science - June 2, 2017 Category: Sports Medicine Tags: Med Sport Sci Source Type: research
A Moral Foundation for Anti-Doping: How Far Have We Progressed? Where Are the Limits?
Authors: Murray TH
Abstract
Clarity about the ethical justification of anti-doping is essential. In its absence, critics multiply and confusion abounds. Three broad reasons are typically offered in anti-doping's defense: to protect athletes' health; to promote fairness; and to preserve meaning and values in sport - what the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) Code refers to as the spirit of sport. Protecting health is itself an important value, but many sports encourage athletes to take significant risks. The case against doping is buttressed by concern for athletes' health, but it cannot be the sole foundatio...
Source: Medicine and Sport Science - June 2, 2017 Category: Sports Medicine Tags: Med Sport Sci Source Type: research
Next Generation "Omics" Approaches in the "Fight" against Blood Doping.
Authors: Wang G, Karanikolou A, Verdouka I, Friedmann T, Pitsiladis Y
Abstract
Despite being prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), blood manipulations such as the use of recombinant human erythropoietin and blood transfusions are a well-known method used by athletes to enhance performance. Direct detection of illicit blood manipulation has been partially successful due to the short detection window of the substances/methods, sample collection timing, and the use of sophisticated masking strategies. In response, WADA introduced the athlete biological passport (ABP) in 2009, which is an individu...
Source: Medicine and Sport Science - June 2, 2017 Category: Sports Medicine Tags: Med Sport Sci Source Type: research
Can We Better Integrate the Role of Anti-Doping in Sports and Society? A Psychological Approach to Contemporary Value-Based Prevention.
Authors: Petróczi A, Norman P, Brueckner S
Abstract
In sport, a wide array of substances with established or putative performance-enhancing properties is used. Most substances are fully acceptable, whilst a defined set, revised annually, is prohibited; thus, using any of these prohibited substances is declared as cheating. In the increasingly tolerant culture of pharmacological and technical human enhancements, the traditional normative approach to anti-doping, which involves telling athletes what they cannot do to improve their athletic ability and performance, diverges from the otherwise positive values...
Source: Medicine and Sport Science - June 2, 2017 Category: Sports Medicine Tags: Med Sport Sci Source Type: research
Achievements and Challenges in Anti-Doping Research.
Authors: Bowers LD, Bigard X
Abstract
The most important element in achieving athlete compliance with anti-doping rules is the certainty of detection. Thus, scientific research plays a mission critical role in achieving clean competition. Many factors contribute to the advances in detection. Incremental advances in the ability to detect prohibited substances and methods, and identification of long-lived metabolites continue to lengthen detection windows. While the athlete biological passport hematological and steroidal modules hold great promise, experience shows that new research is needed to improve the ...
Source: Medicine and Sport Science - June 2, 2017 Category: Sports Medicine Tags: Med Sport Sci Source Type: research
Brief History of Anti-Doping.
Authors: Ljungqvist A
Abstract
The fight against doping in sport as we know it today commenced by the creation of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) Medical Commission in 1961 following the death of a Danish cyclist during the Rome Olympic Games the year before. After a slow start, the fight got under way as from the early 1970s under the leadership of the IOC and of the International Association of Athletics Federations. Despite a lack of understanding and weak support even from the sports community, a series of measures were taken during the 1970s and 1980s which still form cornerstones of today's...
Source: Medicine and Sport Science - June 2, 2017 Category: Sports Medicine Tags: Med Sport Sci Source Type: research
Therapeutic Use Exemptions.
Authors: Gerrard D, Pipe A
Abstract
The introduction, in 2004, of the World Anti-Doping Code and a standardized "prohibited list" of substances and methods proscribed in sport represented a consistent, international response to the escalating challenge of drug misuse in contemporary sport. Simultaneously, it was recognized that athletes experiencing illness or injury might legitimately require the use of "prohibited" medications or procedures, and the concept of the "therapeutic use exemption" (TUE) was introduced. The mechanisms of the TUE process are carefully defined and described in a specific WADA "in...
Source: Medicine and Sport Science - June 2, 2017 Category: Sports Medicine Tags: Med Sport Sci Source Type: research
Is the Fight against Doping in Sport a Legal Minefield like Any Other?
Authors: Haas U
Abstract
In the fight against doping, creating a level playing field across all sports is very challenging from a legal perspective. A harmonized approach presupposes first and foremost a supreme regulatory authority on a global level. This task cannot be attributed to the public sector, because there is no supranational authority of public international law capable of dealing with it. Thus, responsibility has to be assumed by a private law entity. This in turn requires complicated contractual agreements by which duties and responsibilities are transferred from the individual to the nationa...
Source: Medicine and Sport Science - June 2, 2017 Category: Sports Medicine Tags: Med Sport Sci Source Type: research
The Development of the World Anti-Doping Code.
Authors: Young R
Abstract
This chapter addresses both the development and substance of the World Anti-Doping Code, which came into effect in 2003, as well as the subsequent Code amendments, which came into effect in 2009 and 2015. Through an extensive process of stakeholder input and collaboration, the World Anti-Doping Code has transformed the hodgepodge of inconsistent and competing pre-2003 anti-doping rules into a harmonized and effective approach to anti-doping. The Code, as amended, is now widely recognized worldwide as the gold standard in anti-doping. The World Anti-Doping Code originally went into...
Source: Medicine and Sport Science - June 2, 2017 Category: Sports Medicine Tags: Med Sport Sci Source Type: research
Sport, Society, and Anti-Doping Policy: An Ethical Overview.
Authors: Bloodworth AJ, McNamee M
Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the philosophical and ethical underpinnings of anti-doping policy. The nature of sport and its gratuitous logic is explored. The doping rules in sport, such as the Prohibited List, are ways of drawing a line to facilitate a certain sort of competition. Sports can be understood as a means of testing the natural physical abilities of the athlete, combined with the hard work they put into improving their performance. A test promoted by the anti-doping laws. Permitting certain forms of performance enhancement wo...
Source: Medicine and Sport Science - June 2, 2017 Category: Sports Medicine Tags: Med Sport Sci Source Type: research
Structure and Development of the List of Prohibited Substances and Methods.
Authors: Kinahan A, Budgett R, Mazzoni I
Abstract
The list of prohibited substances and methods (the List) is the international standard that determines what is prohibited in sport both in- and out-of-competition. Since 2004, the official text of the List is produced by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), the international independent organization responsible for promoting, coordinating, and monitoring the fight against doping in sport. Originally based on the prohibited lists established by the International Olympic Committee, the List has evolved to incorporate new doping trends, distinguish permitted f...
Source: Medicine and Sport Science - June 2, 2017 Category: Sports Medicine Tags: Med Sport Sci Source Type: research
Integration of the Forensic Dimension into Anti-Doping Strategies.
Authors: Marclay F, Saugy M
Abstract
Traditionally, research in anti-doping has been stimulated by the need for technological improvements to accommodate the expansion of the list of prohibited substances and methods. Nevertheless, in recent years, anti-doping found itself at a crossroads due to the increasing complexity and constant refinement of doping methods. As illustrated by the 2012 USADA (United States Anti-Doping Agency) versus Lance Armstrong case, a change in paradigm was necessary. The exploration of new scientific avenues to understand the mechanisms of doping and pinpoint its practice was mos...
Source: Medicine and Sport Science - June 2, 2017 Category: Sports Medicine Tags: Med Sport Sci Source Type: research
