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Common Noninfectious Conditions of the Honey bees (Apis mellifera) Colony
Honey bee colonies can be afflicted by serious conditions beyond infectious etiologies. Noninfectious conditions, such as starvation, laying worker colonies, and environmental dysregulation, can be as devastating as any disease. Improper hive monitoring and care often are the underlying causes of noninfectious conditions and each condition may be prevented by instituting best management practices. (Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice)
Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice - October 22, 2021 Category: Veterinary Research Authors: Jeffrey R. Applegate Source Type: research

Working with State and Provincial Apiary Programs to Manage Honey Bee (Apis mellifera) Health
Honey bee (Apis mellifera) health and hive transport are regulated by local apiary programs composed of apiary inspectors. Inspectors monitor and ensure the health of honey bees through field visits to apiaries where they inspect, identify, diagnose, and provide recommendations for the treatment of honey bee health issues. Laws and regulations pertaining to beekeeping and honey bee health are present in most states, territories, and provinces. Veterinarians are encouraged to establish a relationship with their local apiary inspector to further support beekeepers and the management of healthy honey bee colonies. (Source: Ve...
Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice - October 22, 2021 Category: Veterinary Research Authors: Kim Skyrm, Natasha Garcia-Andersen, Mary Reed, Tammy Horn Potter, Brooke Decker, Jennifer Lund Source Type: research

Epidemiology and Biosecurity for Veterinarians Working with Honey bees (Apis mellifera)
Honeybee veterinary medicine is a developing field in Canada and the United States. Veterinarians interested in working with honeybees should develop a comprehensive knowledge base on disease dynamics as it applies to the individual, colony, apiary, and broader honeybee populations. There are currently several governmental, academic, and industry organizations that are carrying out epidemiological-based surveys. Although honeybees face unique challenges in regard to biosecurity, the basic principles still apply. Veterinarians can use their expertise in the area of biosecurity to make improvements to current protocols withi...
Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice - October 22, 2021 Category: Veterinary Research Authors: Britteny Kyle, Katie Lee, Stephen F. Pernal Source Type: research

Honey Bee Diagnostics
Honey bees are faced with many diseases, some more serious than others. Observing irregularities during routine hive inspection may indicate potential problems. Not all disorders are equally important; some are more detrimental and need immediate attention, whereas others may only need time to clear up. It is important to be observant to be able to recognize these diseases and differentiate between them so the correct treatment may be done in a timely manner when needed to maintain the health of the colony. Colonies need to be healthy to survive and prosper. (Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice)
Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice - October 22, 2021 Category: Veterinary Research Authors: Don I. Hopkins, Jennifer J. Keller Source Type: research

Honey Bee Nutrition
Optimal nutrition is crucial for honey bee colony growth and robust immune systems. Honey bee nutrition is complex and depends on the floral composition of the landscape. Foraging behavior of honey bees depends on both colony environment and external environment. There are significant gaps in knowledge regarding honey bee nutrition, and hence no optimal diet is available for honey bees, as there is for other livestock. In this review, we discuss (1) foraging behavior of honey bees, (2) nutritional needs, (3) nutritional supplements used by beekeepers, (4) probiotics, and (5) supplemental forage and efforts integrating flor...
Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice - October 22, 2021 Category: Veterinary Research Authors: Jennifer M. Tsuruda, Priyadarshini Chakrabarti, Ramesh R. Sagili Source Type: research

Honey Bee (Apis mellifera) Immunity
At the individual level, honey bees (Apis mellifera) rely on innate immunity, which operates through cellular and humoral mechanisms, to defend themselves against infectious agents and parasites. At the colony level, honey bees have developed collective defense mechanisms against pathogens and pests, such as hygienic and grooming behaviors. An understanding of the immune responses of honey bees is critical to implement strategies to reduce mortality and increase colony productivity. The major components and mechanisms of individual and social immunity of honey bees are discussed in this review. (Source: Veterinary Clinics ...
Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice - October 22, 2021 Category: Veterinary Research Authors: Nuria Morfin, Ricardo Anguiano-Baez, Ernesto Guzman-Novoa Source Type: research

Practical Applications of Genomics in Managing Honey bee Health
The honey bee Apis mellifera is a model organism for sociogenomics and one of the most important managed pollinators. High mortalities experienced by honey bee colonies over the past several decades are expected to have a substantive effect on crop pollination and global food security. These threats and the availability of a growing number of genomic resources for the honey bee have motivated research on how genetics and genomics can be practically applied to manage bee health. The authors review 3 such applications: (1) Certification of bee lineages using single-polymorphism markers; (2) breeding bees using marker-assiste...
Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice - October 22, 2021 Category: Veterinary Research Authors: Tanushree Tiwari, Amro Zayed Source Type: research

Registered Medicinal Products for Use in Honey Bees in the United States and Canada
A 2017 US Food and Drug Administration mandate requiring veterinary oversight for medically important antibiotics used in agricultural animals, including honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) created a “new” animal requiring veterinary involvement. Many resources are available describing medical formulations of antibiotics and other drugs used in the treatment of various honey bee maladies. The goal of this article is to summarize this information in an up-to-date, practical way for the clinic ian. At the time of this writing, only 3 antibiotics are approved for use in honey bees and require veterinary prescriptions or veteri...
Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice - October 22, 2021 Category: Veterinary Research Authors: Tracy S. Farone Source Type: research

Foreign Pests as Potential Threats to North American Apiculture
Honey bees face a broad range of threats globally. Many of these threats originate outside of North America because honey bees are an introduced species. Invasive pests are among the most widely distributed, damaging, and economically costly honey bee hive associates. As international trade and travel continue at a rapid pace, the list of invasive apicultural pests likely will grow. Details of these organisms ’ life history relevant to management and eradication efforts are addressed. Methods and proposed methods of detection and management encountered abroad are discussed. (Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice)
Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice - October 22, 2021 Category: Veterinary Research Authors: Samuel D. Ramsey Source Type: research

Honey Bees and Humane Euthanasia
Euthanasia of animals is a cornerstone of veterinary medicine. Currently, no official criteria are set for the euthanasia or dispatch of a honey bee colony. Many methods are used around the world and vary with regards to technique, materials, volume of agent used, and timing. Each method described has its own level of effectiveness, safety, and humaneness. Although current, commonly used, methodologies may not meet the criteria of humane euthanasia, veterinarians can still apply the professional standard to other key aspects of the act of euthanasia. (Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice)
Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice - October 22, 2021 Category: Veterinary Research Authors: Britteny Kyle, Jeffrey R. Applegate Source Type: research

The Social Life of Honey Bees
Honey bees have evolved to use pollen, nectar, and water as their principal food sources. Their success is linked to the establishment of large colonies with one female reproductive member, three distinct social castes, a division of labor among workers, and genetically diverse subfamilies. Colonies also have the ability to recruit and communicate through complex mechanisms including dance language and pheromones. Pheromones produced by the queen maintain social order in the colony and ensure that she remains as the only female to lay eggs. Finally, honey bee colonies reproduce and disperse through a mechanism called swarm...
Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice - October 22, 2021 Category: Veterinary Research Authors: Stephen F. Pernal Source Type: research

Introduction to Apiculture (Apis mellifera)
Honey bees fulfill a critical role as the principal managed pollinator for modern agricultural ecosystems, necessary for the production of many of the world ’s food crops. The beekeeper must be a knowledgeable manager of bee health, apicultural production systems, and food safety practices. Veterinarians play a vital role in apiculture in supporting beekeepers to treat current and emerging diseases and pests. (Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice)
Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice - October 22, 2021 Category: Veterinary Research Authors: Stephen F. Pernal Source Type: research

Honeybee (Apis mellifera) Health Considerations in Commercial Beekeeping
In addition to the challenges faced by all honeybees, colonies that are managed as part of a commercial beekeeping operation may be subject to additional stressors that are not common to beekeeping outside of a commercial setting. Practices that are common in commercial beekeeping, including topics related to colony transport, managing large apiaries, indoor wintering, handling and shipping of package bees and queens, and banking of queens, are discussed. (Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice)
Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice - October 22, 2021 Category: Veterinary Research Authors: Daniel Wyns Source Type: research

Honey Bees
This article reviews how veterinarians can assist their apiarist clients in identifying hazards and risks to the apiary. Veterinarians can work with clients to navigate the various phases of disaster planning and response, as well as be a source of information on biosecurity and disease prevention. A summary of insurance programs applicable to apiarists is provided. (Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice)
Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice - October 22, 2021 Category: Veterinary Research Authors: Cynthia M. Faux, Terry Ryan Kane Source Type: research

Honey Bee Veterinary Medicine: A Developing Field
For generations, veterinarians have been at the forefront of disease management, herd health, and protecting against foreign animal disease. The Veterinarian ’s Oath, quoted from the American Veterinary Medical Association, states that a component of the veterinarian’s responsibilities include: “…protection of animal health and welfare, the prevention and relief of animal suffering, the conservation of animal resources, the promotion of public he alth….” These concepts may be applied to all animals under veterinary care. (Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice)
Source: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice - October 22, 2021 Category: Veterinary Research Authors: Jeffrey R. Applegate, Britteny Kyle Tags: Preface Source Type: research